Windows Vista Ultimate is the most comprehensive edition of Windows Vista. It is the first operating system that combines all of the advanced infrastructure features of a business-focused operating system, all of the management and efficiency features of a mobility-focused operating system, and all of the digital entertainment features of a consumer-focused operating system.
Windows Vista Minimum Supported System Requirements:
Processor 800 MHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor1
System Memory 512 MB
GPU SVGA (800x600)
Graphics Memory -
HDD 20 GB
HDD Free Space 15 GB
Optical Drive CD-ROM drive2
Audio
Internet
1 Processor speed is specified as the nominal operational processor frequency
Saturday, 25 October 2008
Win XP Service Pack 3
Though Microsoft still won't confirm that it will release a third
service pack for its Windows XP operating system, a preview version of
the software update has been made available on the Web.
An "unofficial" preview pack of Windows XP Service Pack 3 is available
at The Hotfix, a software download site and discussion forum that
focuses on patches and software updates.
Info Avaiable, but Hidden
Ethan Allen, creator and administrator of The Hotfix, said Wednesday
that he assembled the preview pack from software updates sent by an
internal Microsoft source that are expected to be released in SP3.
The updates include Windows log-on improvements and features that fix
current problems with connecting Windows XP computers to various
networks, according to the SP3 forum on the site.
service pack for its Windows XP operating system, a preview version of
the software update has been made available on the Web.
An "unofficial" preview pack of Windows XP Service Pack 3 is available
at The Hotfix, a software download site and discussion forum that
focuses on patches and software updates.
Info Avaiable, but Hidden
Ethan Allen, creator and administrator of The Hotfix, said Wednesday
that he assembled the preview pack from software updates sent by an
internal Microsoft source that are expected to be released in SP3.
The updates include Windows log-on improvements and features that fix
current problems with connecting Windows XP computers to various
networks, according to the SP3 forum on the site.
Wednesday, 24 September 2008
Install Windows XP Step-by-Step?
First, change your system boot order to boot from CD-ROM. Save the changes and then reboot your computer. If it is you will be prompted to press your space bar to directly boot from CD-ROM. Press your space bar as you see this message.
· After some time the installation begins to copy the setup files to your computer. After this you will see a message if you want to perform a new installation, repair an existing installation, or quit. In this case, you will be performing a new install. Press the correct key to perform a new installation.
· Here you will read the terms of the end user license agreement, and press F8 to agree. The next phase, you need to decide which partition of your hard drive you will install Windows XP on. Here you will have the opportunity to create or delete partitions.
· Select format the partition to either FAT32 or NTFS. You'll also see two additional choices to perform a quick format of each option. After you have determined which option is right for you, press the correct key to format the partition. The setup program will automatically start copying files after the partition is formatted.
· Please select the region and language then type name and your organization name.
· Enter your product license key.
· The next phase name the computer, and enter an Admin password. Enter the correct date and time. Choose your network settings. If you have static IP address for broadband access, enter the settings that your ISP has provided you.
· Choose workgroup or domain name. After installing copy of windows XP Wait until you've finished installing any additional hardware.
· Log in after rebooting computer, and update drivers.
· After some time the installation begins to copy the setup files to your computer. After this you will see a message if you want to perform a new installation, repair an existing installation, or quit. In this case, you will be performing a new install. Press the correct key to perform a new installation.
· Here you will read the terms of the end user license agreement, and press F8 to agree. The next phase, you need to decide which partition of your hard drive you will install Windows XP on. Here you will have the opportunity to create or delete partitions.
· Select format the partition to either FAT32 or NTFS. You'll also see two additional choices to perform a quick format of each option. After you have determined which option is right for you, press the correct key to format the partition. The setup program will automatically start copying files after the partition is formatted.
· Please select the region and language then type name and your organization name.
· Enter your product license key.
· The next phase name the computer, and enter an Admin password. Enter the correct date and time. Choose your network settings. If you have static IP address for broadband access, enter the settings that your ISP has provided you.
· Choose workgroup or domain name. After installing copy of windows XP Wait until you've finished installing any additional hardware.
· Log in after rebooting computer, and update drivers.
Creat Virtual Private Network in Win XP
Open the Network Connections option in Control Panel. A list of existing dial-up and LAN connections will appear.
. Choose the 'Create a new connection' option from the left-hand side of the window. First click Next to begin the wizard, then choose the 'Connect to the network at my workplace' item from the list and click Next.
. On the Network Connection page of the wizard, choose the 'Virtual Private Network connection' option and click Next.
. Here type a name for the new VPN connection in the 'Company Name' field and click Next.
. Choose an option on the 'Public Network' screen and click Next. The default option, 'Automatically dial this initial connection' can be used if the VPN connection will always be initiated when the computer is not already connected to the Internet. Otherwise, choose the 'Do not dial the initial connection' option. This option requires that the public Internet connection be established first, before this new VPN connection will be initiated.
. Enter the IP address of the VPN remote access server to connect to, and click Next.
. Choose an option on the "Connection Availability" screen and click Next. The default option, 'My Use Only,' ensures that Windows will make this new connection available only to the currently logged on user. Otherwise, choose the 'Anyone's use' option.
. Click Finish to complete the wizard.
. Choose the 'Create a new connection' option from the left-hand side of the window. First click Next to begin the wizard, then choose the 'Connect to the network at my workplace' item from the list and click Next.
. On the Network Connection page of the wizard, choose the 'Virtual Private Network connection' option and click Next.
. Here type a name for the new VPN connection in the 'Company Name' field and click Next.
. Choose an option on the 'Public Network' screen and click Next. The default option, 'Automatically dial this initial connection' can be used if the VPN connection will always be initiated when the computer is not already connected to the Internet. Otherwise, choose the 'Do not dial the initial connection' option. This option requires that the public Internet connection be established first, before this new VPN connection will be initiated.
. Enter the IP address of the VPN remote access server to connect to, and click Next.
. Choose an option on the "Connection Availability" screen and click Next. The default option, 'My Use Only,' ensures that Windows will make this new connection available only to the currently logged on user. Otherwise, choose the 'Anyone's use' option.
. Click Finish to complete the wizard.
No Problme XP Boot NTLDR Missing Fill Error
Insert the Windows XP bootable CD into the system CD driver and reboot your computer.
When prompted a message to press any key to boot from the CD, press the any key.
Once in the Windows XP setup menu press the "R" key to repair Windows.
Log into your Windows installation by pressing the "1" key and pressing enter.
You will then be prompted for your administrator password, enter that password.
Copy the below two files to the root directory of the primary hard disk. In the below example you are copying these files from the CD-ROM drive letter "F". This letter may be different on your computer.
copy f:\i386\ntldr c:\
copy f:\i386\ntdetect.com c:\
Once copy both files, remove the CD and reboot your system.
When prompted a message to press any key to boot from the CD, press the any key.
Once in the Windows XP setup menu press the "R" key to repair Windows.
Log into your Windows installation by pressing the "1" key and pressing enter.
You will then be prompted for your administrator password, enter that password.
Copy the below two files to the root directory of the primary hard disk. In the below example you are copying these files from the CD-ROM drive letter "F". This letter may be different on your computer.
copy f:\i386\ntldr c:\
copy f:\i386\ntdetect.com c:\
Once copy both files, remove the CD and reboot your system.
Turn ON CD-ROM auto play if it's not working?
Click on Start button then go to Run command and type Regedit in the Open text box. Click OK.
In Registry Editor find the following Registry key:
HKEY LOCALMACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\
Services\CDRom
In the right pane of the console, right click the Autorun entry and click Modify.
In the Edit DWORD Value dialog box, put a number "1" (without the quotes) in the Value data text box. Click OK and then close the Registry Editor
In Registry Editor find the following Registry key:
HKEY LOCALMACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\
Services\CDRom
In the right pane of the console, right click the Autorun entry and click Modify.
In the Edit DWORD Value dialog box, put a number "1" (without the quotes) in the Value data text box. Click OK and then close the Registry Editor
Conver the FAT to NTFS System
If you are using window 2000 or window XP and choose not to convert your file system to NTFS while installing, then don’t worry you can still upgrade to NTFS using CONVERT.EXE.
For example, if you want to convert your FAT or FAT32 file system on your drive C to NTFS:
• Go to "Command Prompt"
• Type:
CONVERT C: /FS:NTFS
• Press ENTER and restart your computer.
For example, if you want to convert your FAT or FAT32 file system on your drive C to NTFS:
• Go to "Command Prompt"
• Type:
CONVERT C: /FS:NTFS
• Press ENTER and restart your computer.
How to clear Windows Media Player History
When you play any audio or video file in window media player, link to the file is stored in the Windows Media Player history. But you can clear the file and URL history in Windows Media Player; use the following steps to clear all history:
First open your Windows Media Player and click Tools, select Options then select the Privacy tab.
In the History section, click the Clear History button.
Click OK and close your Windows Media Player
First open your Windows Media Player and click Tools, select Options then select the Privacy tab.
In the History section, click the Clear History button.
Click OK and close your Windows Media Player
How to creat H.D Partition
After you decide which file system you want to use, run the Fdisk tool:
1. Insert the Windows 98 Startup disk in the floppy disk drive, and then restart your computer.
2. When the Microsoft Windows 98 Startup menu is displayed, choose the Start computer without CD-ROM support option, and then press ENTER.
3. At a command prompt, type fdisk, and then press ENTER.
4. If the hard disk is larger than 512 MB, you receive the following prompt:
Your computer has a disk larger than 512 MB. This version of Windows includes improved support for large disks, resulting in more efficient use of disk space on large drives, and allowing disks over 2 GB to be formatted as a single drive.
IMPORTANT: If you enable large disk support and create any new drives on this disk, you will not be able to access the new drive(s) using other operating systems, including some versions of Windows 95 and Windows NT, as well as earlier versions of Windows and MS-DOS. In addition, disk utilities that were not designated explicitly for the FAT32 file system will not be able to work with this disk. If you need to access this disk with other operating systems or older disk utilities, do no enable large drive support.
Do you wish to enable large disk support (Y/N)?
If you want to use the FAT32 file system, press Y, and then press ENTER. If you want to use the FAT16 file system, press N, and then press ENTER
5. After you press ENTER, the Fdisk Options menu is displayed. Press 1 to select the Create DOS partition or Logical DOS Drive option, and then press ENTER.
6. Press 1 to select the Create Primary DOS Partition option, and then press ENTER.
7. After you press ENTER, you receive the following prompt:
Do you wish to use the maximum available size for primary DOS partition
FAT32 File System:
a. If you chose the FAT32 file system in step 4 and you want all of the space on the hard disk to be assigned to drive C, press Y, and then press ENTER.
b. Press ESC, and then press ESC to quit the Fdisk tool and return to a command prompt
FAT16 File System:
a. If you chose the FAT16 file system in step 4, and you want the first 2 GB on the hard disk to be assigned to drive C, press Y, and then press ENTER.
b. Press ESC to return to the Options menu, and then skip to step i.
c. If you want to customize the size of the partitions (the logical drives) on the hard disk, press N, and then press ENTER.
d. A prompt is displayed for you to type the size that you want for the primary partition in megabytes or percent of disk space. Note that for a Windows 98-based computer, Microsoft recommends that you make the primary partition at least 500 MB. Type the size of the partition that you want to create, and then press ENTER.
e. Press ESC to return to the Options menu.
f. Press 2 to select the Set active partition option, and then press ENTER.
g. When you are prompted to type the number of the partition that you want to make the active partition, press 1, and then press ENTER.
h. Press ESC to return to the Options menu.
i. To assign drive letters to the additional space on the hard disk:
1.Press 1, and then press ENTER.
2.Press 2 to select the Create Extended DOS Partition option, and then press ENTER.
3.The option that appears displays the maximum space that is available for the extended partition. You can adjust the size of the partition or you can use the default size. Note that the default maximum space is recommended, but the space can be divided between multiple drive letters. Type the amount of space that you want, press ENTER, and then press ESC.
4. The Create Logical DOS Drive(s) in the Extended DOS Partition menu is displayed. This is the menu that you use to assign the remaining hard disk space to the additional drive letters. Type the amount of space that you want to assign to the next drive letter at the Enter logical drive size in Mbytes or percent of disk space (%) prompt, and then press ENTER.
5. A table that lists the drive letter that you created and the amount of space that is on that drive is displayed. If there is still free space on the hard disk, it is displayed near the bottom of the table. Repeat steps 1 through 4 until you receive the following message:
All available space in the Extended DOS Partition is assigned to local drives
6. After you receive this message, press ESC, and then press ESC to quit the Fdisk tool and return to a command prompt.
7. After you create the partitions, restart you computer with the Windows 98 Startup disk in the floppy disk drive.
9. When the Windows 98 Startup menu is displayed, choose the Start computer without CD-ROM support option, and then press ENTER.
10. When a command prompt is displayed, type format c:, and then press ENTER.
2. When the Microsoft Windows 98 Startup menu is displayed, choose the Start computer without CD-ROM support option, and then press ENTER.
3. At a command prompt, type fdisk, and then press ENTER.
4. If the hard disk is larger than 512 MB, you receive the following prompt:
Your computer has a disk larger than 512 MB. This version of Windows includes improved support for large disks, resulting in more efficient use of disk space on large drives, and allowing disks over 2 GB to be formatted as a single drive.
IMPORTANT: If you enable large disk support and create any new drives on this disk, you will not be able to access the new drive(s) using other operating systems, including some versions of Windows 95 and Windows NT, as well as earlier versions of Windows and MS-DOS. In addition, disk utilities that were not designated explicitly for the FAT32 file system will not be able to work with this disk. If you need to access this disk with other operating systems or older disk utilities, do no enable large drive support.
Do you wish to enable large disk support (Y/N)?
If you want to use the FAT32 file system, press Y, and then press ENTER. If you want to use the FAT16 file system, press N, and then press ENTER
5. After you press ENTER, the Fdisk Options menu is displayed. Press 1 to select the Create DOS partition or Logical DOS Drive option, and then press ENTER.
6. Press 1 to select the Create Primary DOS Partition option, and then press ENTER.
7. After you press ENTER, you receive the following prompt:
Do you wish to use the maximum available size for primary DOS partition
FAT32 File System:
a. If you chose the FAT32 file system in step 4 and you want all of the space on the hard disk to be assigned to drive C, press Y, and then press ENTER.
b. Press ESC, and then press ESC to quit the Fdisk tool and return to a command prompt
FAT16 File System:
a. If you chose the FAT16 file system in step 4, and you want the first 2 GB on the hard disk to be assigned to drive C, press Y, and then press ENTER.
b. Press ESC to return to the Options menu, and then skip to step i.
c. If you want to customize the size of the partitions (the logical drives) on the hard disk, press N, and then press ENTER.
d. A prompt is displayed for you to type the size that you want for the primary partition in megabytes or percent of disk space. Note that for a Windows 98-based computer, Microsoft recommends that you make the primary partition at least 500 MB. Type the size of the partition that you want to create, and then press ENTER.
e. Press ESC to return to the Options menu.
f. Press 2 to select the Set active partition option, and then press ENTER.
g. When you are prompted to type the number of the partition that you want to make the active partition, press 1, and then press ENTER.
h. Press ESC to return to the Options menu.
i. To assign drive letters to the additional space on the hard disk:
1.Press 1, and then press ENTER.
2.Press 2 to select the Create Extended DOS Partition option, and then press ENTER.
3.The option that appears displays the maximum space that is available for the extended partition. You can adjust the size of the partition or you can use the default size. Note that the default maximum space is recommended, but the space can be divided between multiple drive letters. Type the amount of space that you want, press ENTER, and then press ESC.
4. The Create Logical DOS Drive(s) in the Extended DOS Partition menu is displayed. This is the menu that you use to assign the remaining hard disk space to the additional drive letters. Type the amount of space that you want to assign to the next drive letter at the Enter logical drive size in Mbytes or percent of disk space (%) prompt, and then press ENTER.
5. A table that lists the drive letter that you created and the amount of space that is on that drive is displayed. If there is still free space on the hard disk, it is displayed near the bottom of the table. Repeat steps 1 through 4 until you receive the following message:
All available space in the Extended DOS Partition is assigned to local drives
6. After you receive this message, press ESC, and then press ESC to quit the Fdisk tool and return to a command prompt.
7. After you create the partitions, restart you computer with the Windows 98 Startup disk in the floppy disk drive.
9. When the Windows 98 Startup menu is displayed, choose the Start computer without CD-ROM support option, and then press ENTER.
10. When a command prompt is displayed, type format c:, and then press ENTER.
Web Accelerator
Who doesn't want a faster internet connection? Especially those who are still using dial-up. Web accelerators claim to speed up your connection making pages load faster but do they?
Yes and No. There are two kinds of accelerators: software and server accelerators.
With the software type, pages do load faster, but it's just "smoke and mirrors". Most grab all the pages for each link on a page and "prefetches" them. So, since pages are pre-loading behind the scenes, it gives the illusion of a faster internet connection.
A down side is that they clog up your temporary internet files or, if they have their own cache file, they take up space on your computer. If you go to a page with hundreds of links you could end up with a full cache in no time. You'll also end up with more cookies. Some may even cache secure pages that contain passwords and other sensitive data.
High-speed dial up ISP's often use a special server called an "acceleration server". The A.S. uses a fast broadband connection to request the web page for you then caches the page, compresses data, filters out pop-ups, then sends it to you. The software provided by your ISP then uncompressed it. This all makes it seem up to five-times faster.
It's great for text, HTML code, and JavaScript, but secure pages, downloads, and streaming media usually will not be accelerated. A down side is that photos and graphics are usually compressed and when you get them, the quality is diminishedâ€â€if you get them at all (if you are on high-speed dial up and get the dreaded red X where a graphic should be, this may be the reason). The image size may shrink as much as 50% and go from crisp to cruddy.
If you don't mind trading picture quality loss for a faster connection, then go for high-speed dial up. Some do give you the option to control how much graphics are compressed, so check for this feature if you are having problems getting pictures.
Yes and No. There are two kinds of accelerators: software and server accelerators.
With the software type, pages do load faster, but it's just "smoke and mirrors". Most grab all the pages for each link on a page and "prefetches" them. So, since pages are pre-loading behind the scenes, it gives the illusion of a faster internet connection.
A down side is that they clog up your temporary internet files or, if they have their own cache file, they take up space on your computer. If you go to a page with hundreds of links you could end up with a full cache in no time. You'll also end up with more cookies. Some may even cache secure pages that contain passwords and other sensitive data.
High-speed dial up ISP's often use a special server called an "acceleration server". The A.S. uses a fast broadband connection to request the web page for you then caches the page, compresses data, filters out pop-ups, then sends it to you. The software provided by your ISP then uncompressed it. This all makes it seem up to five-times faster.
It's great for text, HTML code, and JavaScript, but secure pages, downloads, and streaming media usually will not be accelerated. A down side is that photos and graphics are usually compressed and when you get them, the quality is diminishedâ€â€if you get them at all (if you are on high-speed dial up and get the dreaded red X where a graphic should be, this may be the reason). The image size may shrink as much as 50% and go from crisp to cruddy.
If you don't mind trading picture quality loss for a faster connection, then go for high-speed dial up. Some do give you the option to control how much graphics are compressed, so check for this feature if you are having problems getting pictures.
Using REGEDIT With Safety
We often suggest Registry edits--and we often comment on the problems that can occur if you make a mistake using one of the Registry editors. Let's look at a way to make your Registry edits safer.
If you want to edit a value using RegEdit, the safest thing to do is save the key before you make changes. Let's say that you're going to make a change in
HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Winlogon.
Before you make the change, click the Winlogon key and choose Registry, Export Registry File. Give the file a name you can remember (say, "Winlog") and click Save.
With this key saved, you can later double-click the REG file to restore the original Registry settings.
HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Win
Before you make the change, click the Winlogon key and choose Registry, Export Registry File. Give the file a name you can remember (say, "Winlog") and click Save.
With this key saved, you can later double-click the REG file to restore the original Registry settings.
How to Instantly Regain Back extra space of your H
• Right click on the Recycle Bin icon on your Desktop with your mouse then go to Properties from pull down menu.
• Adjust the slider bar in the center of the screen from 10% down to a 5% or more as you want with mouse.
• Then click OK button to save your new sitting and exit the Recycle Bin Properties Window.
• After change reboot your computer to have Windows fully initiate the necessary changes to your system
• Adjust the slider bar in the center of the screen from 10% down to a 5% or more as you want with mouse.
• Then click OK button to save your new sitting and exit the Recycle Bin Properties Window.
• After change reboot your computer to have Windows fully initiate the necessary changes to your system
Top resons to install win XP
1.Help protect your PC from harmful attachments.
By alerting you to potentially unsafe attachments, Windows XP Service Pack 2 (SP2) helps guard your computer from viruses that can spread through Internet Explorer, Outlook Express, and Windows Messenger.
2.Improve your privacy when you’re on the Web.
SP2 helps protect your private information by applying the security settings that guard your PC to the files and content downloaded using Internet Explorer.
3.Avoid potentially unsafe downloads.
Internet Explorer download monitoring and the Internet Explorer Information Bar warn you about potentially harmful downloads and give you the option to block files that could be malicious.
4.Reduce annoying pop-ups.
Internet Explorer Pop-Up Blocker makes browsing the Internet more enjoyable by helping you reduce the unwanted ads and content that pop up when you’re browsing the Web
5.Get firewall protection from startup to shutdown.
The powerful, built-in Windows Firewall is now turned on by default. This helps protect Windows XP against viruses and worms that can spread over the Internet.
6.Take control of your security settings.
The new Windows Security Center allows you to easily view your security status and manage key security settings in one convenient place.
7.Get the latest updates easily.
Enhancements to Windows XP’s Automatic Updates feature make it even easier to access Windows updates. Plus, new technology has been added to help dial-up customers download updates more efficiently.
8.Help protect your e-mail address.
Improvements to Outlook Express help reduce unwanted e-mail by limiting the possibility of your e-mail address being validated by potential spammers.
9.Take action against crashes caused by browser add-ons.
The new Add-On Manager in Internet Explorer lets you easily view and control add-ons to reduce the potential for crashes and enjoy a more trouble-free browsing experience.
10.Go wireless without the hassle.
SP2 improves wireless support and simplifies the process of discovering and connecting to wireless networks in your home or on the road
By alerting you to potentially unsafe attachments, Windows XP Service Pack 2 (SP2) helps guard your computer from viruses that can spread through Internet Explorer, Outlook Express, and Windows Messenger.
2.Improve your privacy when you’re on the Web.
SP2 helps protect your private information by applying the security settings that guard your PC to the files and content downloaded using Internet Explorer.
3.Avoid potentially unsafe downloads.
Internet Explorer download monitoring and the Internet Explorer Information Bar warn you about potentially harmful downloads and give you the option to block files that could be malicious.
4.Reduce annoying pop-ups.
Internet Explorer Pop-Up Blocker makes browsing the Internet more enjoyable by helping you reduce the unwanted ads and content that pop up when you’re browsing the Web
5.Get firewall protection from startup to shutdown.
The powerful, built-in Windows Firewall is now turned on by default. This helps protect Windows XP against viruses and worms that can spread over the Internet.
6.Take control of your security settings.
The new Windows Security Center allows you to easily view your security status and manage key security settings in one convenient place.
7.Get the latest updates easily.
Enhancements to Windows XP’s Automatic Updates feature make it even easier to access Windows updates. Plus, new technology has been added to help dial-up customers download updates more efficiently.
8.Help protect your e-mail address.
Improvements to Outlook Express help reduce unwanted e-mail by limiting the possibility of your e-mail address being validated by potential spammers.
9.Take action against crashes caused by browser add-ons.
The new Add-On Manager in Internet Explorer lets you easily view and control add-ons to reduce the potential for crashes and enjoy a more trouble-free browsing experience.
10.Go wireless without the hassle.
SP2 improves wireless support and simplifies the process of discovering and connecting to wireless networks in your home or on the road
Win Boot Timing
Have you ever wanted to know if there's a way to set the boot time in a dual boot computer without editing Boot.ini, check this out.
Click Start, right click on My Computer, and then click Properties. When the dialog box opens, Advanced tab. Under Startup and Recovery, click the Settings button. Use the spin box to set the number of seconds you want the system to wait before automatically starting the default operating system.
After you set the time, click OK to close the dialog box and save your change. The next time you restart, the new time will take effect
After you set the time, click OK to close the dialog box and save your change. The next time you restart, the new time will take effect
Network
What is a Network?
A network is simply a group of two or more Personal Computers linked together.
What Types of Networks Exist?
Many types of networks exist, but the most common types of networks are Local-Area Networks (LANs), and Wide-Area Networks (WANs). In a LAN, computers are connected together within a "local" area (for example, an office or home). In a WAN, computers are farther apart and are connected via telephone/communication lines, radio waves, or other means of connection.
How are Networks Categorized?
Networks are usually classified using three properties: Topology, Protocol, and Architecture. Topology specifies the geometric arrangement of the network. Common topologies are a bus, ring, and star. You can check out a figure showing the three common types of network topologies here. Protocol specifies a common set of rules and signals the computers on the network use to communicate.
Most networks use Ethernet, but some networks may use IBM's Token Ring protocol. We recommend Ethernet for both home and office networking. Architecture refers to one of the two major types of network architecture: Peer-to-peer or client/server.
In a Peer-to-Peer networking configuration, there is no server, and computers simply connect with eachother in a workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access. This is most commonly found in home configurations, and is only practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers. In a client/server network, there is usually an NT Domain Controller, which all of the computers log on to.
This server can provide various services, including centrally routed Internet Access, mail (including e-mail), file sharing, and printer access, as well as ensuring security across the network. This is most commonly found in corporate configurations, where network security is essential.
Now that you have a basic understanding of networks, we'll learn about the type of network most people will want to setup, a Local-Area Network
In today?s Internet age, the corporate network is truly the lifeblood of business. As the success of any organization becomes increasingly intertwined and dependent on its network it is crucial to understand the latest in networking technology.
And as device networking increases the number of things connected to networks and the Internet, rapidly making M2M (machine to machine) a reality, speed, remote management, wireless networking, reliability and the security of networked devices are all concerns that must be addressed.
We have put together the following tutorials to help provide you with a solid foundation and understanding of basic networking protocols and techniques as well as serial to Ethernet/802.11 device server technology.
A network is simply a group of two or more Personal Computers linked together.
What Types of Networks Exist?
Many types of networks exist, but the most common types of networks are Local-Area Networks (LANs), and Wide-Area Networks (WANs). In a LAN, computers are connected together within a "local" area (for example, an office or home). In a WAN, computers are farther apart and are connected via telephone/communication lines, radio waves, or other means of connection.
How are Networks Categorized?
Networks are usually classified using three properties: Topology, Protocol, and Architecture. Topology specifies the geometric arrangement of the network. Common topologies are a bus, ring, and star. You can check out a figure showing the three common types of network topologies here. Protocol specifies a common set of rules and signals the computers on the network use to communicate.
Most networks use Ethernet, but some networks may use IBM's Token Ring protocol. We recommend Ethernet for both home and office networking. Architecture refers to one of the two major types of network architecture: Peer-to-peer or client/server.
In a Peer-to-Peer networking configuration, there is no server, and computers simply connect with eachother in a workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access. This is most commonly found in home configurations, and is only practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers. In a client/server network, there is usually an NT Domain Controller, which all of the computers log on to.
This server can provide various services, including centrally routed Internet Access, mail (including e-mail), file sharing, and printer access, as well as ensuring security across the network. This is most commonly found in corporate configurations, where network security is essential.
Now that you have a basic understanding of networks, we'll learn about the type of network most people will want to setup, a Local-Area Network
In today?s Internet age, the corporate network is truly the lifeblood of business. As the success of any organization becomes increasingly intertwined and dependent on its network it is crucial to understand the latest in networking technology.
And as device networking increases the number of things connected to networks and the Internet, rapidly making M2M (machine to machine) a reality, speed, remote management, wireless networking, reliability and the security of networked devices are all concerns that must be addressed.
We have put together the following tutorials to help provide you with a solid foundation and understanding of basic networking protocols and techniques as well as serial to Ethernet/802.11 device server technology.
TCP/IP Ports and Addresses
TCP/IP Ports and Addresses
Each machine in the network shown below, has one or more network cards. The part of the network that does the job of transporting and managing the data across the network is called TCP/IP which stands for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). There are other alternative mechanisms for managing network traffic, but most, such as IPX/SPX for Netware, will not be described here in much detail. The IP layer requires a 4 (IPv4) or 6 (IPv6) byte address to be assigned to each network interface card on each computer. This can be done automatically using network software such as dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) or by manually entering static addresses into the computer.
Ports
The TCP layer requires what is called a port number to be assigned to each message. This way it can determine the type of service being provided. Please be aware here, that when we are talking about "ports" we are not talking about ports that are used for serial and parallel devices, or ports used for computer hardware control. These ports are merely reference numbers used to define a service. For instance, port 23 is used for telnet services, and HTTP uses port 80 for providing web browsing service. There is a group called the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) that controls the assigning of ports for specific services. There are some ports that are assigned, some reserved and many unassigned which may be utilized by application programs. Port numbers are straight unsigned integer values which range up to a value of 65535.
Addresses
Addresses are used to locate computers. It works almost like a house address. There is a numbering system to help the mailman locate the proper house to deliver customer's mail to. Without an IP numbering system, it would not be possible to determine where network data packets should go.
IPv4, which means internet protocol version 4, is described here. Each IP address is denoted by what is called dotted decimal notation. This means there are four numbers, each separated by a dot. Each number represents a one byte value with a possible mathematical range of 0-255. Briefly, the first one or two bytes, depending on the class of network, generally will indicate the number of the network, the third byte indicates the number of the subnet, and the fourth number indicates the host number. This numbering scheme will vary depending on the network and the numbering method used such as Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) which is described later. The host number cannot be 0 or 255. None of the numbers can be 255 and the first number cannot be 0. This is because broadcasting is done with all bits set in some bytes. Broadcasting is a form of communication that all hosts on a network can read, and is normally used for performing various network queries. An address of all 0's is not used, because when a machine is booted that does not have a hardware address assigned, it provides 0.0.0.0 as its address until it receives its assignment. This would occur for machines that are remote booted or those that boot using the dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP). The part of the IP address that defines the network is referred to as the network ID, and the latter part of the IP address that defines the host address is referred to as the host ID.
IPv6 is an enhancement to the IPv4 standard due to the shortage of internet addresses.
The dotted notation values are increased to 12 bit values rather than byte (8 bit) values. This increases the effective range of each possible decimal value to 4095. Of course the values of 0 and 4095 (all bits set) are generally reserved the same as with the IPv4 standard.
Ports
The TCP layer requires what is called a port number to be assigned to each message. This way it can determine the type of service being provided. Please be aware here, that when we are talking about "ports" we are not talking about ports that are used for serial and parallel devices, or ports used for computer hardware control. These ports are merely reference numbers used to define a service. For instance, port 23 is used for telnet services, and HTTP uses port 80 for providing web browsing service. There is a group called the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) that controls the assigning of ports for specific services. There are some ports that are assigned, some reserved and many unassigned which may be utilized by application programs. Port numbers are straight unsigned integer values which range up to a value of 65535.
Addresses
Addresses are used to locate computers. It works almost like a house address. There is a numbering system to help the mailman locate the proper house to deliver customer's mail to. Without an IP numbering system, it would not be possible to determine where network data packets should go.
IPv4, which means internet protocol version 4, is described here. Each IP address is denoted by what is called dotted decimal notation. This means there are four numbers, each separated by a dot. Each number represents a one byte value with a possible mathematical range of 0-255. Briefly, the first one or two bytes, depending on the class of network, generally will indicate the number of the network, the third byte indicates the number of the subnet, and the fourth number indicates the host number. This numbering scheme will vary depending on the network and the numbering method used such as Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) which is described later. The host number cannot be 0 or 255. None of the numbers can be 255 and the first number cannot be 0. This is because broadcasting is done with all bits set in some bytes. Broadcasting is a form of communication that all hosts on a network can read, and is normally used for performing various network queries. An address of all 0's is not used, because when a machine is booted that does not have a hardware address assigned, it provides 0.0.0.0 as its address until it receives its assignment. This would occur for machines that are remote booted or those that boot using the dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP). The part of the IP address that defines the network is referred to as the network ID, and the latter part of the IP address that defines the host address is referred to as the host ID.
IPv6 is an enhancement to the IPv4 standard due to the shortage of internet addresses.
The dotted notation values are increased to 12 bit values rather than byte (8 bit) values. This increases the effective range of each possible decimal value to 4095. Of course the values of 0 and 4095 (all bits set) are generally reserved the same as with the IPv4 standard.
Network Protocol
Network Protocol Levels
You should be aware of the fact, that when talking about networking you will hear the word "protocol" all the time. This is because protocols are sets of standards that define all operations within a network. They define how various operations are to be performed. They may even define how devices outside the network can interact with the network. Protocols define everything from basic networking data structures, to higher level application programs. They define various services and utility programs. Protocols operate at many layers of the network models described below. There are protocols considered to be transport protocols such as TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP(User Datagram Protocol). Other protocols work at the network layer of the OSI(Open Systems Interconnection) network model shown below, and some protocols work at several of the network layers.
RFCs
Protocols are outlined in Request for Comments (RFCs). At the end of this document is a list of protocols and associated RFC numbers.Protocols. Although RFCs define protocols not all RFCs define protocols but may define other requirements for the internet such as RFC 1543 which provides information about the preparation of RFCs. The following RFCs are very central to the TCP/IP(Internet Protocol) protocol.
• RFC 1122 - Defines host requirements of the TCP/IP suite of protocols covering the link, network (IP), and transport (TCP, UDP) layers.
• RFC 1123 - The companion RFC to 1122 covering requirements for internet hosts at the application layer
• RFC 1812 - Defines requirements for internet gateways which are IPv4 routers
Network Models
There are several network models which you may hear about but the one you will hear about most is the ISO network model described below. You should realize, however that there are others such as:
• The internet layered protocol
• The TCP/IP 4 layered protocol
The Microsoft networking protocol
If you don't like any of these models, feel free to invent your own along with your own networking scheme of course, and add it to the list above. You can call it "The MyName Protocol". Ever wonder why networking can be so complex and confusing? Welcome to the world of free enterprise!
The OSI Network Model Standard
The International Standards Organization (ISO) has defined a standard called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. This is a seven layer architecture listed below. Each layer is considered to be responsible for a different part of the communications. This concept was developed to accommodate changes in technology. The layers are arranged here from the lower levels starting with the physical (hardware) to the higher levels.
1. Physical Layer - The actual hardware.
2. Data Link Layer - Data transfer method (802x ethernet). Puts data in frames and ensures error free transmission. Also controls the timing of the network transmission. Adds frame type, address, and error control information. IEEE divided this layer into the two following sublayers.
1. Logical Link control (LLC) - Maintains the Link between two computers by establishing Service Access Points (SAPs) which are a series of interface points. IEEE 802.2.
2. Media Access Control (MAC) - Used to coordinate the sending of data between computers. The 802.3, 4, 5, and 12 standards apply to this layer. If you hear someone talking about the MAC address of a network card, they are referring to the hardware address of the card.
3. Network Layer - IP network protocol. Routes messages using the best path available.
4. Transport Layer - TCP, UDP. Ensures properly sequenced and error free transmission.
5. Session Layer - The user's interface to the network. Determines when the session is begun or opened, how long it is used, and when it is closed. Controls the transmission of data during the session. Supports security and name lookup enabling computers to locate each other.
6. Presentation Layer - ASCII or EBCDEC data synt
6. Presentation Layer - ASCII or EBCDEC data syntax. Makes the type of data transparent to the layers around it. Used to translate date to computer specific format such as byte ordering. It may include compression. It prepares the data, either for the network or the application depending on the direction it is going.
7. Application Layer - Provides services software applications need. Provides the ability for user applications to interact with the network.
Many protocol stacks overlap the borders of the seven layer model by operating at multiple layers of the model. File Transport Protocol (FTP) and telnet both work at the application, presentation, and the session layers.
The Internet, TCP/IP, DOD Model
This model is sometimes called the DOD model since it was designed for the department of defense It is also called the TCP/IP four layer protocol, or the internet protocol. It has the following layers:
1. Link - Device driver and interface card which maps to the data link and physical layer of the OSI model.
2. Network - Corresponds to the network layer of the OSI model and includes the IP, ICMP, and IGMP protocols.
3. Transport - Corresponds to the transport layer and includes the TCP and UDP protocols.
4. Application - Corresponds to the OSI Session, Presentation and Application layers and includes FTP, Telnet, ping, Rlogin, rsh, TFTP, SMTP, SNMP, DNS, your program, etc.
Please note the four layer TCP/IP protocol. Each layer has a set of data that it generates.
1. The Link layer corresponds to the hardware, including the device driver and interface card. The link layer has data packets associated with it depending on the type of network being used such as ARCnet, Token ring or ethernet. In our case, we will be talking about ethernet.
2. The network layer manages the movement of packets around the network and includes IP, ICMP, and IGMP. It is responsible for making sure that packages reach their destinations, and if they don't, reporting errors.
4. The application layer refers to networking protocols that are used to support various services such as FTP, Telnet, BOOTP, etc. Note here to avoid confusion, that the application layer is generally referring to protocols such as FTP, telnet, ping, and other programs designed for specific purposes which are governed by a specific set of protocols defined with RFC's (request for comments). However a program that you may write can define its own data structure to send between your client and server program so long as the program you run on both the client and server machine understand your protocol. For example when your program opens a socket to another machine, it is using TCP protocol, but the data you send depends on how you structure it.
Data Encapsulation, a Critical concept to be understood
When starting with protocols that work at the upper layers of the network models, each set of data is wrapped inside the next lower layer protocol, similar to wrapping letters inside an envelope. The application creates the data, then the transport layer wraps that data inside its format, then the network layer wraps the data, and finally the link (ethernet) layer encapsulates the data and transmits it.
To continue, you should understand the definition of a client and server with regards to networking. If you are a server, you will provide services to a client, in much the same way as a private investigator would provide services to their clients. A client will contact the server, and ask for service, which the server will then provide. The service may be as simple as sending a single block of data back to the client. Since there are many clients, a server must be constantly ready to receive client requests, even though it may already be working with other clients. Usually the client program will operate on one computer, while the server program will operate on another computer, although programs can be written to be both a client and a server.
Lets say you write a client chat program and a server chat program to be used by two people to send messages between their machines. You run the server program on machine B, and the client program on machine A. Tom is on machine A and George is on machine B. George's machine is always ready to be contacted, but cannot initiate a contact. Therefore if George wants to talk to Tom, he cannot, until Tom contacts him. Tom, of course can initiate contact at any time. Now you decide to solve the problem and merge the functionality of the two programs into one, so both parties may contact the other. This program is now a client/server program which operates both as a client and a server. You write your code so when one side initiates contact, he will get a dialog box, and a dialog box will pop up on the other side. At the time contact is initiated, a socket is opened between the two machines and a virtual connection is established. The program will let the user (Tom) type text into the dialog window, and hit send. When the user hits send, roughly the following will happen.
1. Your program will pass Tom's typed text in a buffer, to the socket. This happens on machine A.
2. The underlying software (Code in a library called by a function your program used to send the data) supporting the socket puts the data inside a TCP data packet. This means that a TCP header will be added to the data. This header contains a source and destination port number along with some other information and a checksum. Deamon programs (Daemon definition at the bottom of this page) may also work at this level to sort packages based on port number (hence the TCP wrapper program in UNIX and Linux).
3. The TCP packet will be placed inside an IP data packet with a source and destination IP address along with some other data for network management. This may be done by a combination of your library function, the operating system and supporting programs.
4. The IP data packet is placed inside an ethernet data packet. This data packet includes the destination and source address of the network interface cards (NIC) on the two computers. The address here is the hardware address of the respective cards and is called the MAC address.
5. The ethernet packet is transmitted over the network line.
6. Assuming there is a direct connection between the two computers, the network interface card on machine B, will recognize its MAC address and grab the data.
7. The IP data packet will be extracted from the ethernet data packet. A combination of deamons and the operating system will perform this operation.
8. The TCP data packet will be extracted from the IP data packet. A combination of deamons, the operating system, and libraries called by your program will perform this function.
9. The data will be extracted from the TCP packet. Your program will then display the retrieved data (text) in the text display window for George to read.
Be aware that for the sake of simplicity, we are excluding details such as error management, routing, and identifying the hardware address of the NIC on the computer intended to receive the data. Also we are not mentioning the possible rejection of service based on a packet's port number or sender's IP address.
A deamon program is a program that runs in the background on a computer operating system. It is used to perform various tasks including server functions. It is usually started when the operating system is booted, but a user or administrator may be able to start or stop a daemon at any time
RFCs
Protocols are outlined in Request for Comments (RFCs). At the end of this document is a list of protocols and associated RFC numbers.Protocols. Although RFCs define protocols not all RFCs define protocols but may define other requirements for the internet such as RFC 1543 which provides information about the preparation of RFCs. The following RFCs are very central to the TCP/IP(Internet Protocol) protocol.
• RFC 1122 - Defines host requirements of the TCP/IP suite of protocols covering the link, network (IP), and transport (TCP, UDP) layers.
• RFC 1123 - The companion RFC to 1122 covering requirements for internet hosts at the application layer
• RFC 1812 - Defines requirements for internet gateways which are IPv4 routers
Network Models
There are several network models which you may hear about but the one you will hear about most is the ISO network model described below. You should realize, however that there are others such as:
• The internet layered protocol
• The TCP/IP 4 layered protocol
The Microsoft networking protocol
If you don't like any of these models, feel free to invent your own along with your own networking scheme of course, and add it to the list above. You can call it "The MyName Protocol". Ever wonder why networking can be so complex and confusing? Welcome to the world of free enterprise!
The OSI Network Model Standard
The International Standards Organization (ISO) has defined a standard called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. This is a seven layer architecture listed below. Each layer is considered to be responsible for a different part of the communications. This concept was developed to accommodate changes in technology. The layers are arranged here from the lower levels starting with the physical (hardware) to the higher levels.
1. Physical Layer - The actual hardware.
2. Data Link Layer - Data transfer method (802x ethernet). Puts data in frames and ensures error free transmission. Also controls the timing of the network transmission. Adds frame type, address, and error control information. IEEE divided this layer into the two following sublayers.
1. Logical Link control (LLC) - Maintains the Link between two computers by establishing Service Access Points (SAPs) which are a series of interface points. IEEE 802.2.
2. Media Access Control (MAC) - Used to coordinate the sending of data between computers. The 802.3, 4, 5, and 12 standards apply to this layer. If you hear someone talking about the MAC address of a network card, they are referring to the hardware address of the card.
3. Network Layer - IP network protocol. Routes messages using the best path available.
4. Transport Layer - TCP, UDP. Ensures properly sequenced and error free transmission.
5. Session Layer - The user's interface to the network. Determines when the session is begun or opened, how long it is used, and when it is closed. Controls the transmission of data during the session. Supports security and name lookup enabling computers to locate each other.
6. Presentation Layer - ASCII or EBCDEC data synt
6. Presentation Layer - ASCII or EBCDEC data syntax. Makes the type of data transparent to the layers around it. Used to translate date to computer specific format such as byte ordering. It may include compression. It prepares the data, either for the network or the application depending on the direction it is going.
7. Application Layer - Provides services software applications need. Provides the ability for user applications to interact with the network.
Many protocol stacks overlap the borders of the seven layer model by operating at multiple layers of the model. File Transport Protocol (FTP) and telnet both work at the application, presentation, and the session layers.
The Internet, TCP/IP, DOD Model
This model is sometimes called the DOD model since it was designed for the department of defense It is also called the TCP/IP four layer protocol, or the internet protocol. It has the following layers:
1. Link - Device driver and interface card which maps to the data link and physical layer of the OSI model.
2. Network - Corresponds to the network layer of the OSI model and includes the IP, ICMP, and IGMP protocols.
3. Transport - Corresponds to the transport layer and includes the TCP and UDP protocols.
4. Application - Corresponds to the OSI Session, Presentation and Application layers and includes FTP, Telnet, ping, Rlogin, rsh, TFTP, SMTP, SNMP, DNS, your program, etc.
Please note the four layer TCP/IP protocol. Each layer has a set of data that it generates.
1. The Link layer corresponds to the hardware, including the device driver and interface card. The link layer has data packets associated with it depending on the type of network being used such as ARCnet, Token ring or ethernet. In our case, we will be talking about ethernet.
2. The network layer manages the movement of packets around the network and includes IP, ICMP, and IGMP. It is responsible for making sure that packages reach their destinations, and if they don't, reporting errors.
4. The application layer refers to networking protocols that are used to support various services such as FTP, Telnet, BOOTP, etc. Note here to avoid confusion, that the application layer is generally referring to protocols such as FTP, telnet, ping, and other programs designed for specific purposes which are governed by a specific set of protocols defined with RFC's (request for comments). However a program that you may write can define its own data structure to send between your client and server program so long as the program you run on both the client and server machine understand your protocol. For example when your program opens a socket to another machine, it is using TCP protocol, but the data you send depends on how you structure it.
Data Encapsulation, a Critical concept to be understood
When starting with protocols that work at the upper layers of the network models, each set of data is wrapped inside the next lower layer protocol, similar to wrapping letters inside an envelope. The application creates the data, then the transport layer wraps that data inside its format, then the network layer wraps the data, and finally the link (ethernet) layer encapsulates the data and transmits it.
To continue, you should understand the definition of a client and server with regards to networking. If you are a server, you will provide services to a client, in much the same way as a private investigator would provide services to their clients. A client will contact the server, and ask for service, which the server will then provide. The service may be as simple as sending a single block of data back to the client. Since there are many clients, a server must be constantly ready to receive client requests, even though it may already be working with other clients. Usually the client program will operate on one computer, while the server program will operate on another computer, although programs can be written to be both a client and a server.
Lets say you write a client chat program and a server chat program to be used by two people to send messages between their machines. You run the server program on machine B, and the client program on machine A. Tom is on machine A and George is on machine B. George's machine is always ready to be contacted, but cannot initiate a contact. Therefore if George wants to talk to Tom, he cannot, until Tom contacts him. Tom, of course can initiate contact at any time. Now you decide to solve the problem and merge the functionality of the two programs into one, so both parties may contact the other. This program is now a client/server program which operates both as a client and a server. You write your code so when one side initiates contact, he will get a dialog box, and a dialog box will pop up on the other side. At the time contact is initiated, a socket is opened between the two machines and a virtual connection is established. The program will let the user (Tom) type text into the dialog window, and hit send. When the user hits send, roughly the following will happen.
1. Your program will pass Tom's typed text in a buffer, to the socket. This happens on machine A.
2. The underlying software (Code in a library called by a function your program used to send the data) supporting the socket puts the data inside a TCP data packet. This means that a TCP header will be added to the data. This header contains a source and destination port number along with some other information and a checksum. Deamon programs (Daemon definition at the bottom of this page) may also work at this level to sort packages based on port number (hence the TCP wrapper program in UNIX and Linux).
3. The TCP packet will be placed inside an IP data packet with a source and destination IP address along with some other data for network management. This may be done by a combination of your library function, the operating system and supporting programs.
4. The IP data packet is placed inside an ethernet data packet. This data packet includes the destination and source address of the network interface cards (NIC) on the two computers. The address here is the hardware address of the respective cards and is called the MAC address.
5. The ethernet packet is transmitted over the network line.
6. Assuming there is a direct connection between the two computers, the network interface card on machine B, will recognize its MAC address and grab the data.
7. The IP data packet will be extracted from the ethernet data packet. A combination of deamons and the operating system will perform this operation.
8. The TCP data packet will be extracted from the IP data packet. A combination of deamons, the operating system, and libraries called by your program will perform this function.
9. The data will be extracted from the TCP packet. Your program will then display the retrieved data (text) in the text display window for George to read.
Be aware that for the sake of simplicity, we are excluding details such as error management, routing, and identifying the hardware address of the NIC on the computer intended to receive the data. Also we are not mentioning the possible rejection of service based on a packet's port number or sender's IP address.
A deamon program is a program that runs in the background on a computer operating system. It is used to perform various tasks including server functions. It is usually started when the operating system is booted, but a user or administrator may be able to start or stop a daemon at any time
A BASIC GUIDE TO THE INTERNET
The Internet is a computer network made up of thousands of networks worldwide. No one knows exactly how many computers are connected to the Internet. It is certain, however, that these number in the millions. No one is in charge of the Internet. There are organizations which develop technical aspects of this network and set standards for creating applications on it, but no governing body is in control. The Internet backbone, through which Internet traffic flows, is owned by private companies.
All computers on the Internet communicate with one another using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol suite, abbreviated to TCP/IP. Computers on the Internet use a client/server architecture. This means that the remote server machine provides files and services to the user's local client machine. Software can be installed on a client computer to take advantage of the latest access technology.
An Internet user has access to a wide variety of services: electronic mail, file transfer, vast information resources, interest group membership, interactive collaboration, multimedia displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping opportunities, breaking news, and much more.
The Internet consists primarily of a variety of access protocols. Many of these protocols feature programs that allow users to search for and retrieve material made available by the protocol.
COMPONENTS OF THE INTERNET WORLD WIDE WEB
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as the Web or WWW) is a system of Internet servers that supports hypertext to access several Internet protocols on a single interface. Almost every protocol type available on the Internet is accessible on the Web. This includes e-mail, FTP, Telnet, and Usenet News. In addition to these, the World Wide Web has its own protocol: HyperText Transfer Protocol, or HTTP. These protocols will be explained later in this document.
The World Wide Web provides a single interface for accessing all these protocols. This creates a convenient and user-friendly environment.
It is no longer necessary to be conversant in these protocols within separate, command-level environments. The Web gathers together these protocols into a single system. Because of this feature, and because of the Web's ability to work with multimedia and advanced programming languages, the Web is the fastest-growing component of the Internet.
The operation of the Web relies primarily on hypertext as its means of information retrieval. HyperText is a document containing words that connect to other documents. These words are called links and are selectable by the user. A single hypertext document can contain links to many documents. In the context of the Web, words or graphics may serve as links to other documents, images, video, and sound. Links may or may not follow a logical path, as each connection is programmed by the creator of the source document. Overall, the Web contains a complex virtual web of connections among a vast number of documents, graphics, videos, and sounds.
Producing hypertext for the Web is accomplished by creating documents with a language called HyperText Markup Language, or HTML. With HTML, tags are placed within the text to accomplish document formatting, visual features such as font size, italics and bold, and the creation of hypertext links. Graphics and multimedia may also be incorporated into an HTML document. HTML is an evolving language, with new tags being added as each upgrade of the language is developed and released. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), led by Web founder Tim Berners-Lee, coordinates the efforts of standardizing HTML. The W3C now calls the language XHTML and considers it to be an application of the XML language standard.The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages or home pages, containing links to documents and resources throughout the Internet.
The Web provides a vast array of experiences including multimedia presentations, real-time collaboration, interactive pages, radio and television broadcasts, and the automatic "push" of information to a client computer. Programming languages such as Java, JavaScript, Visual Basic, Cold Fusion and XML are extending the capabilities of the Web. A growing amount of information on the Web is served dynamically from content stored in databases. The Web is therefore not a fixed entity, but one that is in a constant state of development and flux.
E-MAIL
Electronic mail, or e-mail, allows computer users locally and worldwide to exchange messages. Each user of e-mail has a mailbox address to which messages are sent. Messages sent through e-mail can arrive within a matter of seconds.
A powerful aspect of e-mail is the option to send electronic files to a person's e-mail address. Non-ASCII files, known as binary files, may be attached to e-mail messages. These files are referred to as MIME attachments.MIME stands for Multimedia Internet Mail Extension, and was developed to help e-mail software handle a variety of file types. For example, a document created in Microsoft Word can be attached to an e-mail message and retrieved by the recipient with the appropriate e-mail program. Many e-mail programs, including Eudora, Netscape Messenger, and Microsoft Outlook, offer the ability to read files written in HTML, which is itself a MIME type.
TELNET
Telnet is a program that allows you to log into computers on the Internet and use online databases, library catalogs, chat services, and more. There are no graphics in Telnet sessions, just text. To Telnet to a computer, you must know its address. This can consist of words (locis.loc.gov) or numbers (140.147.254.3). Some services require you to connect to a specific port on the remote computer. In this case, type the port number after the Internet address. Example: telnet nri.reston.va.us 185.
Telnet is available on the World Wide Web. Probably the most common Web-based resources available through Telnet have been library catalogs, though most catalogs have since migrated to the Web. A link to a Telnet resource may look like any other link, but it will launch a Telnet session to make the connection. A Telnet program must be installed on your local computer and configured to your Web browser in order to work.
With the increasing popularity of the Web, Telnet has become less frequently used as a means of access to information on the Internet.
FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This is both a program and the method used to transfer files between computers. Anonymous FTP is an option that allows users to transfer files from thousands of host computers on the Internet to their personal computer account. FTP sites contain books, articles, software, games, images, sounds, multimedia, course work, data sets, and more.
If your computer is directly connected to the Internet via an Ethernet cable, you can use one of several PC software programs, such as WS_FTP for Windows, to conduct a file transfer.
FTP transfers can be performed on the World Wide Web without the need for special software. In this case, the Web browser will suffice. Whenever you download software from a Web site to your local machine, you are using FTP. You can also retrieve FTP files via search engines such as FtpFind, located at E-
MAIL DISCUSSION GROUPS
One of the benefits of the Internet is the opportunity it offers to people worldwide to communicate via e-mail. The Internet is home to a large community of individuals who carry out active discussions organized around topic-oriented forums distributed by e-mail. These are administered by software programs. Probably the most common program is the listserv.
A great variety of topics are covered by listservs, many of them academic in nature. When you subscribe to a listserv, messages from other subscribers are automatically sent to your electronic mailbox.
You subscribe to a listserv by sending an e-mail message to a computer program called a listserver. Listservers are located on computer networks throughout the world. This program handles subscription information and distributes messages to and from subscribers. You must have a e-mail account to participate in a listserv discussion group. Visit Tile.net at http://tile.net/ to see an example of a site that offers a searchablecollection of e-mail discussion groups.
Majordomo and Listproc are two other programs that administer e-mail discussion groups. The commands for subscribing to and managing your list memberships are similar to those of listserv.
USENET NEWS
Usenet News is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions of computer users exchange information on a vast range of topics. The major difference between Usenet News and e-mail discussion groups is the fact that Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users must connect to these computers to read or download the messages posted to these groups. This is distinct from e-mail distribution, in which messages arrive in the electronic mailboxes of each list member.
Usenet itself is a set of machines that exchanges messages, or articles, from Usenet discussion forums, called newsgroups. Usenet administrators control their own sites, and decide which (if any) newsgroups to sponsor and which remote newsgroups to allow into the system.There are thousands of Usenet newsgroups in existence. While many are academic in nature, numerous newsgroups are organized around recreational topics. Much serious computer-related work takes place in Usenet discussions. A small number of e-mail discussion groups also exist as Usenet newsgroups. The Usenet newsfeed can be read by a variety of newsreader software programs. For example, the Netscape suite comes with a newsreader program called Messenger. Newsreaders are also available as standalone products.
All computers on the Internet communicate with one another using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol suite, abbreviated to TCP/IP. Computers on the Internet use a client/server architecture. This means that the remote server machine provides files and services to the user's local client machine. Software can be installed on a client computer to take advantage of the latest access technology.
An Internet user has access to a wide variety of services: electronic mail, file transfer, vast information resources, interest group membership, interactive collaboration, multimedia displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping opportunities, breaking news, and much more.
The Internet consists primarily of a variety of access protocols. Many of these protocols feature programs that allow users to search for and retrieve material made available by the protocol.
COMPONENTS OF THE INTERNET WORLD WIDE WEB
The World Wide Web (abbreviated as the Web or WWW) is a system of Internet servers that supports hypertext to access several Internet protocols on a single interface. Almost every protocol type available on the Internet is accessible on the Web. This includes e-mail, FTP, Telnet, and Usenet News. In addition to these, the World Wide Web has its own protocol: HyperText Transfer Protocol, or HTTP. These protocols will be explained later in this document.
The World Wide Web provides a single interface for accessing all these protocols. This creates a convenient and user-friendly environment.
It is no longer necessary to be conversant in these protocols within separate, command-level environments. The Web gathers together these protocols into a single system. Because of this feature, and because of the Web's ability to work with multimedia and advanced programming languages, the Web is the fastest-growing component of the Internet.
The operation of the Web relies primarily on hypertext as its means of information retrieval. HyperText is a document containing words that connect to other documents. These words are called links and are selectable by the user. A single hypertext document can contain links to many documents. In the context of the Web, words or graphics may serve as links to other documents, images, video, and sound. Links may or may not follow a logical path, as each connection is programmed by the creator of the source document. Overall, the Web contains a complex virtual web of connections among a vast number of documents, graphics, videos, and sounds.
Producing hypertext for the Web is accomplished by creating documents with a language called HyperText Markup Language, or HTML. With HTML, tags are placed within the text to accomplish document formatting, visual features such as font size, italics and bold, and the creation of hypertext links. Graphics and multimedia may also be incorporated into an HTML document. HTML is an evolving language, with new tags being added as each upgrade of the language is developed and released. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), led by Web founder Tim Berners-Lee, coordinates the efforts of standardizing HTML. The W3C now calls the language XHTML and considers it to be an application of the XML language standard.The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages or home pages, containing links to documents and resources throughout the Internet.
The Web provides a vast array of experiences including multimedia presentations, real-time collaboration, interactive pages, radio and television broadcasts, and the automatic "push" of information to a client computer. Programming languages such as Java, JavaScript, Visual Basic, Cold Fusion and XML are extending the capabilities of the Web. A growing amount of information on the Web is served dynamically from content stored in databases. The Web is therefore not a fixed entity, but one that is in a constant state of development and flux.
Electronic mail, or e-mail, allows computer users locally and worldwide to exchange messages. Each user of e-mail has a mailbox address to which messages are sent. Messages sent through e-mail can arrive within a matter of seconds.
A powerful aspect of e-mail is the option to send electronic files to a person's e-mail address. Non-ASCII files, known as binary files, may be attached to e-mail messages. These files are referred to as MIME attachments.MIME stands for Multimedia Internet Mail Extension, and was developed to help e-mail software handle a variety of file types. For example, a document created in Microsoft Word can be attached to an e-mail message and retrieved by the recipient with the appropriate e-mail program. Many e-mail programs, including Eudora, Netscape Messenger, and Microsoft Outlook, offer the ability to read files written in HTML, which is itself a MIME type.
TELNET
Telnet is a program that allows you to log into computers on the Internet and use online databases, library catalogs, chat services, and more. There are no graphics in Telnet sessions, just text. To Telnet to a computer, you must know its address. This can consist of words (locis.loc.gov) or numbers (140.147.254.3). Some services require you to connect to a specific port on the remote computer. In this case, type the port number after the Internet address. Example: telnet nri.reston.va.us 185.
Telnet is available on the World Wide Web. Probably the most common Web-based resources available through Telnet have been library catalogs, though most catalogs have since migrated to the Web. A link to a Telnet resource may look like any other link, but it will launch a Telnet session to make the connection. A Telnet program must be installed on your local computer and configured to your Web browser in order to work.
With the increasing popularity of the Web, Telnet has become less frequently used as a means of access to information on the Internet.
FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This is both a program and the method used to transfer files between computers. Anonymous FTP is an option that allows users to transfer files from thousands of host computers on the Internet to their personal computer account. FTP sites contain books, articles, software, games, images, sounds, multimedia, course work, data sets, and more.
If your computer is directly connected to the Internet via an Ethernet cable, you can use one of several PC software programs, such as WS_FTP for Windows, to conduct a file transfer.
FTP transfers can be performed on the World Wide Web without the need for special software. In this case, the Web browser will suffice. Whenever you download software from a Web site to your local machine, you are using FTP. You can also retrieve FTP files via search engines such as FtpFind, located at E-
MAIL DISCUSSION GROUPS
One of the benefits of the Internet is the opportunity it offers to people worldwide to communicate via e-mail. The Internet is home to a large community of individuals who carry out active discussions organized around topic-oriented forums distributed by e-mail. These are administered by software programs. Probably the most common program is the listserv.
A great variety of topics are covered by listservs, many of them academic in nature. When you subscribe to a listserv, messages from other subscribers are automatically sent to your electronic mailbox.
You subscribe to a listserv by sending an e-mail message to a computer program called a listserver. Listservers are located on computer networks throughout the world. This program handles subscription information and distributes messages to and from subscribers. You must have a e-mail account to participate in a listserv discussion group. Visit Tile.net at http://tile.net/ to see an example of a site that offers a searchablecollection of e-mail discussion groups.
Majordomo and Listproc are two other programs that administer e-mail discussion groups. The commands for subscribing to and managing your list memberships are similar to those of listserv.
USENET NEWS
Usenet News is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions of computer users exchange information on a vast range of topics. The major difference between Usenet News and e-mail discussion groups is the fact that Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users must connect to these computers to read or download the messages posted to these groups. This is distinct from e-mail distribution, in which messages arrive in the electronic mailboxes of each list member.
Usenet itself is a set of machines that exchanges messages, or articles, from Usenet discussion forums, called newsgroups. Usenet administrators control their own sites, and decide which (if any) newsgroups to sponsor and which remote newsgroups to allow into the system.There are thousands of Usenet newsgroups in existence. While many are academic in nature, numerous newsgroups are organized around recreational topics. Much serious computer-related work takes place in Usenet discussions. A small number of e-mail discussion groups also exist as Usenet newsgroups. The Usenet newsfeed can be read by a variety of newsreader software programs. For example, the Netscape suite comes with a newsreader program called Messenger. Newsreaders are also available as standalone products.
Speed up viewing shared files across a network
Windows 2000 & XP machines delay as long as 30 seconds when you try to view shared files across a network because Windows is using the extra time to search the remote computer for any Scheduled Tasks. Here's how to prevent this remote search for Scheduled Tasks:
Open up the Registry and go to :
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE/Software/Microsoft/Windows/CurrentVersion/Explorer/RemoteComputer/NameSpace
Under that branch, select the key :
{D6277990-4C6A-11CF-8D87-00AA0060F5BF}
and delete it.
If you like you may want to export the exact branch so that you can restore the key if necessary. This fix is so effective that it doesn't require a reboot and you can almost immediately determine yourself how much it speeds up your browsing processes.
Open up the Registry and go to :
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE/Software/Microsoft/Wi
Under that branch, select the key :
{D6277990-4C6A-11CF-8D87-00AA0060F5BF}
and delete it.
If you like you may want to export the exact branch so that you can restore the key if necessary. This fix is so effective that it doesn't require a reboot and you can almost immediately determine yourself how much it speeds up your browsing processes.
Firewall to Secure network
Use the Internet Connection Firewall to Secure Your Small Network
A firewall is a security system that acts as a protective boundary between a network and the outside world. Windows XP includes Internet Connection Firewall (ICF) software you can use to restrict what information is communicated between the Internet and your home or small office network. ICF also protects a single computer connected to the Internet with a cable modem, a DSL modem, or a dial–up modem.
If your network uses Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) to provide Internet access to multiple computers, you should use ICF on the shared Internet connection. However, ICS and ICF can be enabled separately. You should not enable the firewall on any connection that does not directly connect to the Internet, and ICF is not needed if your network already has a firewall or proxy server.
You must be logged on to your computer with an owner account in order to complete this procedure. You should not enable Internet Connection Firewall on virtual private networking (VPN) connections or on client computers because ICF will interfere with file and printer sharing. ICF cannot be enabled on the private connections of the Internet Connection Sharing host computer.
To enable or disable Internet Connection Firewall
Open Network Connections (Click Start, click Control Panel, and then double–click Network Connections.)
Click the Dial–up, LAN or High–Speed Internet connection that you want to protect, and then, under Network Tasks, click Change settings of this connection.
On the Advanced tab, under Internet Connection Firewall, select one of the following:
To enable Internet Connection Firewall (ICF), select the Protect my computer and network by limiting or preventing access to this computer from the Internet check box.
To disable Internet Connection Firewall, clear the Protect my computer and network by limiting or preventing access to this computer from the Internet check box. This disables the firewall, your computer and network are then vulnerable to intrusions
A firewall is a security system that acts as a protective boundary between a network and the outside world. Windows XP includes Internet Connection Firewall (ICF) software you can use to restrict what information is communicated between the Internet and your home or small office network. ICF also protects a single computer connected to the Internet with a cable modem, a DSL modem, or a dial–up modem.
If your network uses Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) to provide Internet access to multiple computers, you should use ICF on the shared Internet connection. However, ICS and ICF can be enabled separately. You should not enable the firewall on any connection that does not directly connect to the Internet, and ICF is not needed if your network already has a firewall or proxy server.
You must be logged on to your computer with an owner account in order to complete this procedure. You should not enable Internet Connection Firewall on virtual private networking (VPN) connections or on client computers because ICF will interfere with file and printer sharing. ICF cannot be enabled on the private connections of the Internet Connection Sharing host computer.
To enable or disable Internet Connection Firewall
Open Network Connections (Click Start, click Control Panel, and then double–click Network Connections.)
Click the Dial–up, LAN or High–Speed Internet connection that you want to protect, and then, under Network Tasks, click Change settings of this connection.
On the Advanced tab, under Internet Connection Firewall, select one of the following:
To enable Internet Connection Firewall (ICF), select the Protect my computer and network by limiting or preventing access to this computer from the Internet check box.
To disable Internet Connection Firewall, clear the Protect my computer and network by limiting or preventing access to this computer from the Internet check box. This disables the firewall, your computer and network are then vulnerable to intrusions
Turn off win animation
You can turn off window animation ("exploding" windows), displayed when you play around with minimizing/maximizing open windows. This makes navigating Windows 95/98/ME/NT4/2000/XP a lot quicker, especially if you don't have a fast video controller, or if you got tired of seeing it all the time (like I did). :)
To do this, run Regedit (or Regedt32) and go to:
HKEY_CURRENT_USER | Control Panel | Desktop | WindowMetrics
or if you are the only user of your Windows computer go to:
HKEY_USERS | .Default | Control Panel | Desktop | WindowMetrics
Right-click on an empty spot in the right hand pane. Select New -> String [REG_SZ] Value. Name it MinAnimate. Click OK. Double-click on "MinAnimate" and type 0 to turn OFF window animation or 1 to turn it ON. Click OK. Close the Registry Editor and restart Windows. Done.
TweakUI, the famous Microsoft Power Toy [110 KB, free, unsupported] can also turn off animated windows.
Just remove the check mark from the "Window Animation" box under the General tab
To do this, run Regedit (or Regedt32) and go to:
HKEY_CURRENT_USER | Control Panel | Desktop | WindowMetrics
or if you are the only user of your Windows computer go to:
HKEY_USERS | .Default | Control Panel | Desktop | WindowMetrics
Right-click on an empty spot in the right hand pane. Select New -> String [REG_SZ] Value. Name it MinAnimate. Click OK. Double-click on "MinAnimate" and type 0 to turn OFF window animation or 1 to turn it ON. Click OK. Close the Registry Editor and restart Windows. Done.
TweakUI, the famous Microsoft Power Toy [110 KB, free, unsupported] can also turn off animated windows.
Just remove the check mark from the "Window Animation" box under the General tab
Run scan disk tool
Scandisk is not a part of Windows XP - instead you get the improved CHKDSK. You can use the Error-checking tool to check for file system errors and bad sectors on your hard disk.
1: Open My Computer, and then select the local disk you want to check.
2: On the File menu, click Properties.
3: On the Tools tab, under Error-checking, click Check Now.
4: Under Check disk options, select the Scan for and attempt recovery of bad sectors check box.
• All files must be closed for this process to run. If the volume is currently in use, a message box will appear prompting you to indicate whether or not you want to reschedule the disk checking for the next time you restart your system. Then, the next time you restart your system, disk checking will run. Your volume will not be available to perform other tasks while this process is running.
• If your volume is formatted as NTFS, Windows automatically logs all file transactions, replaces bad clusters, and stores copies of key information for all files on the NTFS volume.
1: Open My Computer, and then select the local disk you want to check.
2: On the File menu, click Properties.
3: On the Tools tab, under Error-checking, click Check Now.
4: Under Check disk options, select the Scan for and attempt recovery of bad sectors check box.
• All files must be closed for this process to run. If the volume is currently in use, a message box will appear prompting you to indicate whether or not you want to reschedule the disk checking for the next time you restart your system. Then, the next time you restart your system, disk checking will run. Your volume will not be available to perform other tasks while this process is running.
• If your volume is formatted as NTFS, Windows automatically logs all file transactions, replaces bad clusters, and stores copies of key information for all files on the NTFS volume.
Usefull Shortcuts in win
When speed counts, the keyboard is still king. Almost all the actions and commands you can perform with a mouse you can perform faster using combinations of keys on your keyboard. These simple keyboard shortcuts can get you where you want to go faster than several clicks of a mouse. You'll work faster on spreadsheets and similar documents, too, because you won't lose your place switching back and forth between mouse and keys.
Here are some of the most useful keyboard shortcuts:
Copy. CTRL+C
Cut. CTRL+X
Paste. CTRL+V
Undo. CTRL+Z
Delete. DELETE
Delete selected item permanently without placing the item in the Recycle Bin. SHIFT+DELETE
Copy selected item. CTRL while dragging an item
Create shortcut to selected item. CTRL+SHIFT while dragging an item
Rename selected item. F2
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next word. CTRL+RIGHT ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous word. CTRL+LEFT ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph. CTRL+DOWN ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous paragraph. CTRL+UP ARROW
Highlight a block of text. CTRL+SHIFT with any of the arrow keys
Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or select text within a document. SHIFT with any of the arrow keys
Select all. CTRL+A
Search for a file or folder. F3
View properties for the selected item. ALT+ENTER
Close the active item, or quit the active program. ALT+F4
Opens the shortcut menu for the active window. ALT+SPACEBAR
Close the active document in programs that allow you to have multiple documents open simultaneously. CTRL+F4
Switch between open items. ALT+TAB
Cycle through items in the order they were opened. ALT+ESC
Cycle through screen elements in a window or on the desktop. F6
Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows Explorer. F4
Display the shortcut menu for the selected item. SHIFT+F10
Display the System menu for the active window. ALT+SPACEBAR
Display the Start menu. CTRL+ESC
Display the corresponding menu. ALT+Underlined letter in a menu name
Carry out the corresponding command. Underlined letter in a command name on an open menu
Activate the menu bar in the active program. F10
Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu. RIGHT ARROW
Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu. LEFT ARROW
Refresh the active window. F5
View the folder one level up in My Computer or Windows Explorer. BACKSPACE
Cancel the current task. ESC
SHIFT when you insert a CD into the CD-ROM drive Prevent the CD from automatically playing.
Use these keyboard shortcuts for dialog boxes
Move forward through tabs. CTRL+TAB
Move backward through tabs. CTRL+SHIFT+TAB
Move forward through options. TAB
Move backward through options. SHIFT+TAB
Carry out the corresponding command or select the corresponding option. ALT+Underlined letter
Carry out the command for the active option or button. ENTER
Select or clear the check box if the active option is a check box. SPACEBAR
Select a button if the active option is a group of option buttons. Arrow keys
Display Help. F1
Display the items in the active list. F4
Open a folder one level up if a folder is selected in the Save As or Open dialog box. BACKSPACE
If you have a Microsoft Natural Keyboard, or any other compatible keyboard that includes the Windows logo key and the Application key , you can use these keyboard shortcuts
Display or hide the Start menu.
Display the System Properties dialog box. +BREAK
Show the desktop. +D
Minimize all windows. +M
Restores minimized windows. +Shift+M
Open My Computer. +E
Search for a file or folder. +F
Search for computers. CTRL+ +F
Display Windows Help. +F1
Lock your computer if you are connected to a network domain, or switch users if you are not connected to a network domain. + L
Open the Run dialog box. +R
Display the shortcut menu for the selected item
Open Utility Manager. +U
Helpful accessibility keyboard shortcuts:
Switch FilterKeys on and off. Right SHIFT for eight seconds
Switch High Contrast on and off. Left ALT +left SHIFT +PRINT SCREEN
Switch MouseKeys on and off. Left ALT +left SHIFT +NUM LOCK
Switch StickyKeys on and off. SHIFT five times
Switch ToggleKeys on and off. NUM LOCK for five seconds
Open Utility Manager. +U
Keyboard shortcuts you can use with Windows Explorer:
Display the bottom of the active window. END
Display the top of the active window. HOME
Display all subfolders under the selected folder. NUM LOCK+ASTERISK on numeric keypad (*)
Display the contents of the selected folder. NUM LOCK+PLUS SIGN on numeric keypad (+)
Collapse the selected folder. NUM LOCK+MINUS SIGN on numeric keypad (-)
Collapse current selection if it's expanded, or select parent folder. LEFT ARROW
Display current selection if it's collapsed, or select first subfolder. RIGHT ARROW
Here are some of the most useful keyboard shortcuts:
Copy. CTRL+C
Cut. CTRL+X
Paste. CTRL+V
Undo. CTRL+Z
Delete. DELETE
Delete selected item permanently without placing the item in the Recycle Bin. SHIFT+DELETE
Copy selected item. CTRL while dragging an item
Create shortcut to selected item. CTRL+SHIFT while dragging an item
Rename selected item. F2
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next word. CTRL+RIGHT ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous word. CTRL+LEFT ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph. CTRL+DOWN ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous paragraph. CTRL+UP ARROW
Highlight a block of text. CTRL+SHIFT with any of the arrow keys
Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or select text within a document. SHIFT with any of the arrow keys
Select all. CTRL+A
Search for a file or folder. F3
View properties for the selected item. ALT+ENTER
Close the active item, or quit the active program. ALT+F4
Opens the shortcut menu for the active window. ALT+SPACEBAR
Close the active document in programs that allow you to have multiple documents open simultaneously. CTRL+F4
Switch between open items. ALT+TAB
Cycle through items in the order they were opened. ALT+ESC
Cycle through screen elements in a window or on the desktop. F6
Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows Explorer. F4
Display the shortcut menu for the selected item. SHIFT+F10
Display the System menu for the active window. ALT+SPACEBAR
Display the Start menu. CTRL+ESC
Display the corresponding menu. ALT+Underlined letter in a menu name
Carry out the corresponding command. Underlined letter in a command name on an open menu
Activate the menu bar in the active program. F10
Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu. RIGHT ARROW
Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu. LEFT ARROW
Refresh the active window. F5
View the folder one level up in My Computer or Windows Explorer. BACKSPACE
Cancel the current task. ESC
SHIFT when you insert a CD into the CD-ROM drive Prevent the CD from automatically playing.
Use these keyboard shortcuts for dialog boxes
Move forward through tabs. CTRL+TAB
Move backward through tabs. CTRL+SHIFT+TAB
Move forward through options. TAB
Move backward through options. SHIFT+TAB
Carry out the corresponding command or select the corresponding option. ALT+Underlined letter
Carry out the command for the active option or button. ENTER
Select or clear the check box if the active option is a check box. SPACEBAR
Select a button if the active option is a group of option buttons. Arrow keys
Display Help. F1
Display the items in the active list. F4
Open a folder one level up if a folder is selected in the Save As or Open dialog box. BACKSPACE
If you have a Microsoft Natural Keyboard, or any other compatible keyboard that includes the Windows logo key and the Application key , you can use these keyboard shortcuts
Display or hide the Start menu.
Display the System Properties dialog box. +BREAK
Show the desktop. +D
Minimize all windows. +M
Restores minimized windows. +Shift+M
Open My Computer. +E
Search for a file or folder. +F
Search for computers. CTRL+ +F
Display Windows Help. +F1
Lock your computer if you are connected to a network domain, or switch users if you are not connected to a network domain. + L
Open the Run dialog box. +R
Display the shortcut menu for the selected item
Open Utility Manager. +U
Helpful accessibility keyboard shortcuts:
Switch FilterKeys on and off. Right SHIFT for eight seconds
Switch High Contrast on and off. Left ALT +left SHIFT +PRINT SCREEN
Switch MouseKeys on and off. Left ALT +left SHIFT +NUM LOCK
Switch StickyKeys on and off. SHIFT five times
Switch ToggleKeys on and off. NUM LOCK for five seconds
Open Utility Manager. +U
Keyboard shortcuts you can use with Windows Explorer:
Display the bottom of the active window. END
Display the top of the active window. HOME
Display all subfolders under the selected folder. NUM LOCK+ASTERISK on numeric keypad (*)
Display the contents of the selected folder. NUM LOCK+PLUS SIGN on numeric keypad (+)
Collapse the selected folder. NUM LOCK+MINUS SIGN on numeric keypad (-)
Collapse current selection if it's expanded, or select parent folder. LEFT ARROW
Display current selection if it's collapsed, or select first subfolder. RIGHT ARROW
Remove shortcut arrow from desktop icons in XP
Here's how you can remove those shortcut arrows from your desktop icons in Windows XP.
1. Start regedit.
2. Navigate to HKEY_CLASSES_ROOTlnkfile
3. Delete the IsShortcut registry value.
You may need to restart Windows XP.
1. Start regedit.
2. Navigate to HKEY_CLASSES_ROOTlnkfile
3. Delete the IsShortcut registry value.
You may need to restart Windows XP.
Disable Error Reporting in XP
1. Open Control Panel
2. Click on Performance and Maintenance.
3. Click on System.
4. Then click on the Advanced tab
5. Click on the error-reporting button on the bottom of the windows.
6. Select Disable error reporting.
7. Click OK
8. Click OK
2. Click on Performance and Maintenance.
3. Click on System.
4. Then click on the Advanced tab
5. Click on the error-reporting button on the bottom of the windows.
6. Select Disable error reporting.
7. Click OK
8. Click OK
XP Hibernate Option
Whenever you want to logoff, shut down or reboot your Windows XP machine you have only 3 choices
(1) Standby ONLY IF the ACPI(Advanced Configuration and Power Interface)/APM(Advanced Power Management) function is properly enabled BOTH in your motherboard's BIOS AND in WinXP!
(2) Restart
(3) Shutdown.
To properly enable Hibernation in WinXP:
Start button -> Control Panel -> Power Options -> Hibernate tab -> check Enable hibernate support box -> Apply/OK -> reboot.
NOTE: If the Hibernate tab is unavailable your computer does NOT support it!
For some reason Microsoft did NOT enable the 4th option:
(4) Hibernate, which should be available on power saving ACPI(Advanced Configuration and Power Interface) enabled PCs and laptops.
But you CAN bring it back: just hold the Shift key while the Shut down menu is displayed on your screen, and notice the Standby button being replaced by a new, fully functional Hibernate button, which can be clicked with the left button of your mouse.
If you release the Shift key, the Hibernate option will disappear once again, to be replaced by Standby
(1) Standby ONLY IF the ACPI(Advanced Configuration and Power Interface)/APM(Advanced Power Management) function is properly enabled BOTH in your motherboard's BIOS AND in WinXP!
(2) Restart
(3) Shutdown.
To properly enable Hibernation in WinXP:
Start button -> Control Panel -> Power Options -> Hibernate tab -> check Enable hibernate support box -> Apply/OK -> reboot.
NOTE: If the Hibernate tab is unavailable your computer does NOT support it!
For some reason Microsoft did NOT enable the 4th option:
(4) Hibernate, which should be available on power saving ACPI(Advanced Configuration and Power Interface) enabled PCs and laptops.
But you CAN bring it back: just hold the Shift key while the Shut down menu is displayed on your screen, and notice the Standby button being replaced by a new, fully functional Hibernate button, which can be clicked with the left button of your mouse.
If you release the Shift key, the Hibernate option will disappear once again, to be replaced by Standby
How to Find a Lost File in your computer?
To find this missing file first, select the 'Start' button (bottom left hand corner of your screen) then select from the Start menu list that opens, 'Find' then 'Files or Folder'.
When the 'Find: All Files' dialog box opens you are ready to find that missing file. If you did a simple search for all '.doc files' (being the Microsoft Word file suffix) you may bring up hundreds of Microsoft Word files. To help you narrow your search, if you can remember part of the file name eg; 'jim', when the full name maybe 'Jim Burns quote 2.5.02.doc' you will get fewer results.
To make a partial word search type in the 'Named' field the word followed by an *, this is above the number 8, press 'shift key + 8' to replace missing word/s or letter/s eg; 'jim*.doc', then you will have fewer results. You can use * before or after the partial word/s or letter/s.
By default your hard drive will be selected in the 'Look in' field. To start your search press the 'Find Now' button and the results will be listed below.
To make your search quicker if you save all your files inside your 'My Documents' folder select it in the 'Look in' field when you open the 'Find: All Files' dialog box. By selecting the 'My Documents' folder your computer only searches it instead of your whole hard drive.
When the 'Find: All Files' dialog box opens you are ready to find that missing file. If you did a simple search for all '.doc files' (being the Microsoft Word file suffix) you may bring up hundreds of Microsoft Word files. To help you narrow your search, if you can remember part of the file name eg; 'jim', when the full name maybe 'Jim Burns quote 2.5.02.doc' you will get fewer results.
To make a partial word search type in the 'Named' field the word followed by an *, this is above the number 8, press 'shift key + 8' to replace missing word/s or letter/s eg; 'jim*.doc', then you will have fewer results. You can use * before or after the partial word/s or letter/s.
By default your hard drive will be selected in the 'Look in' field. To start your search press the 'Find Now' button and the results will be listed below.
To make your search quicker if you save all your files inside your 'My Documents' folder select it in the 'Look in' field when you open the 'Find: All Files' dialog box. By selecting the 'My Documents' folder your computer only searches it instead of your whole hard drive.
Network Topology?
Network Topology
A network consists of multiple computers connected using some type of interface, each having one or more interface devices such as a Network Interface Card (NIC) and/or a serial device for PPP networking. Each computer is supported by network software that provides the server or client functionality. The hardware used to transmit data across the network is called the media. It may include copper cable, fiber optic, or wireless transmission. The standard cabling used for the purposes of this document is 10Base-T category 5 ethernet cable. This is twisted copper cabling which appears at the surface to look similar to TV coaxial cable. It is terminated on each end by a connector that looks much like a phone connector. Its maximum segment length is 100 meters.
Network Categories
There are two main types of network categories which are:
• Server based
• Peer-to-peer
In a server based network, there are computers set up to be primary providers of services such as file service or mail service. The computers providing the service are are called servers and the computers that request and use the service are called client computers.
In a peer-to-peer network, various computers on the network can act both as clients and servers. For instance, many Microsoft Windows based computers will allow file and print sharing. These computers can act both as a client and a server and are also referred to as peers. Many networks are combination peer-to-peer and server based networks. The network operating system uses a network data protocol to communicate on the network to other computers. The network operating system supports the applications on that computer. A Network Operating System (NOS) includes Windows NT, Novell Netware, Linux, Unix and others.
A network consists of multiple computers connected using some type of interface, each having one or more interface devices such as a Network Interface Card (NIC) and/or a serial device for PPP networking. Each computer is supported by network software that provides the server or client functionality. The hardware used to transmit data across the network is called the media. It may include copper cable, fiber optic, or wireless transmission. The standard cabling used for the purposes of this document is 10Base-T category 5 ethernet cable. This is twisted copper cabling which appears at the surface to look similar to TV coaxial cable. It is terminated on each end by a connector that looks much like a phone connector. Its maximum segment length is 100 meters.
Network Categories
There are two main types of network categories which are:
• Server based
• Peer-to-peer
In a server based network, there are computers set up to be primary providers of services such as file service or mail service. The computers providing the service are are called servers and the computers that request and use the service are called client computers.
In a peer-to-peer network, various computers on the network can act both as clients and servers. For instance, many Microsoft Windows based computers will allow file and print sharing. These computers can act both as a client and a server and are also referred to as peers. Many networks are combination peer-to-peer and server based networks. The network operating system uses a network data protocol to communicate on the network to other computers. The network operating system supports the applications on that computer. A Network Operating System (NOS) includes Windows NT, Novell Netware, Linux, Unix and others.
Three Network Topologies
The network topology describes the method used to do the physical wiring of the network. The main ones are bus, star, and ring.
1. Bus - Both ends of the network must be terminated with a terminator. A barrel connector can be used to extend it.
2. Star - All devices revolve around a central hub, which is what controls the network communications, and can communicate with other hubs. Range limits are about 100 meters from the hub.
3. Ring - Devices are connected from one to another, as in a ring. A data token is used to grant permission for each computer to communicate.
There are also hybrid networks including a star-bus hybrid, star-ring network, and mesh networks with connections between various computers on the network. Mesh networks ideally allow each computer to have a direct connection to each of the other computers. The topology this documentation deals with most is star topology since that is what ethernet networks use
you confused? create con, com1, com2... folder
create a folder named CON ,COM1, COM2... in windows xp
very simple..................
try at command prompt.....
c:\md con\
very simple..................
try at command prompt.....
c:\md con\
method of breaking password in operatingsystem2000
method of breaking password in operatingsystem2000
we can breake password of windows 2000 with the help of we insert cd win 98 in cd rom change the boat sequence and than open c:
windows:
than system 32
than type del_sam than password will be breake up than you can operate your windows 2000.
windows:
than system 32
than type del_sam than password will be breake up than you can operate your windows 2000.
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